Understanding Ingredient Lists: A Practical Guide

The Basic Rules of Ingredient Lists

In the EU and Switzerland, a simple rule applies: ingredients are listed in descending order of their weight. The first ingredient makes up the largest proportion, and the last the smallest. This rule is laid down in the EU Food Information Regulation (FIR, EU Regulation 1169/2011).

What many people do not know is that manufacturers are allowed to use collective terms. Instead of listing each individual type of oil, the label may simply state “vegetable oils.” Instead of naming each type of sugar, terms like “sugars” can be used. This makes comparing products more difficult.

For compound ingredients (e.g. a chocolate filling in a muesli bar), the individual components must be listed in brackets. Exception: ingredients that make up less than 2% of the final product.

Sugar Has Over 60 Names

Perhaps the most important skill when reading ingredient lists is recognising sugar. Manufacturers can declare sugar in over 60 different ways. There is a strategic reason for this. If three different types of sugar are used instead of one large quantity, none of them appears at the top of the ingredient list.

Common sugar names:

• Obvious: Sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, granulated sugar
• Syrup variants: Glucose syrup, fructose syrup, corn syrup (high fructose corn syrup), rice syrup, agave syrup, maple syrup
• Technical terms: Sucrose, dextrose, maltose, lactose, galactose
• Concentrates: Fruit juice concentrate, grape sweetener, apple juice concentrate
• Exotic-sounding: Coconut blossom sugar, palm sugar, muscovado, panela

Chandon and Wansink (2007) showed in their study in the Journal of Marketing Research that consumers systematically underestimate the total amount of sugar in a product when it is divided among different names. The splitting creates the impression that less sugar is present, even though the total quantity remains identical.

E-Numbers: Not All Are Bad

E-numbers have a bad reputation. Yet the E-number system is simply a European classification system for food additives. Every E-number has been evaluated and approved by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).

Harmless E-Numbers

Many E-numbers refer to completely natural substances:

• E 100 (Curcumin): Natural colourant from turmeric
• E 160a (Beta-carotene): Provitamin A, found in carrots
• E 300 (Ascorbic acid): Vitamin C
• E 306 (Tocopherol): Vitamin E
• E 330 (Citric acid): Naturally occurring in citrus fruits
• E 410 (Locust bean gum): Natural thickening agent
• E 440 (Pectin): Natural gelling agent from fruits

Critically Discussed E-Numbers

Some additives are controversially assessed in the scientific literature:

• E 951 (Aspartame): Classified by WHO/IARC as “possibly carcinogenic” (Group 2B), though the evidence is limited
• E 955 (Sucralose): Studies indicate possible effects on gut microbiota (Suez et al., 2022)
• E 433 (Polysorbate 80): May affect the gut barrier according to animal studies (Chassaing et al., 2015)
• E 171 (Titanium dioxide): Banned as a food additive in the EU since 2022

”Natural Flavouring” and Other Misleading Terms

The term “natural flavouring” sounds harmless but is legally very broad. According to EU Flavourings Regulation (EC 1334/2008), a natural flavouring merely needs to be derived from a plant, animal, or microbiological source. This says nothing about the degree of processing.

In practice, this means that a “natural strawberry flavouring” does not have to come from strawberries. It can be derived from wood chips or moulds, as long as the chemical process meets certain criteria. Only the designation “natural strawberry flavouring from strawberries” guarantees that at least 95% of the flavouring actually comes from strawberries.

Other misleading terms:

• “No added sugar” does not mean sugar-free. Naturally occurring sugar (e.g. from fruit juice concentrate) does not count as “added.”
• “Wholegrain” is not legally protected in many countries. A product containing 10% wholegrain can still be marketed this way.
• “High in protein” requires at least 20% of the energy value to come from protein according to EU regulation. This sounds like a lot but can mean little protein in absolute terms for energy-dense products.

Reading the Nutrition Table: Portion Size as a Trick

The nutrition table is standardised in the EU and must show values per 100 g or 100 ml. Additionally, manufacturers may provide values per serving. This is where a common trick lies.

Kanter et al. (2018) published an analysis of portion sizes on packaging in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine. The study showed that manufacturers often define unrealistically small portion sizes to make the nutritional values per serving look better. A muffin is declared as “2 servings,” a bottle of lemonade as “2.5 servings.”

Practical tip: Always compare values per 100 g. This is the only reliable basis for comparison between different products.

Reference Values per 100 g

• Sugar: Below 5 g is considered low, above 22.5 g is considered high
• Fat: Below 3 g is considered low, above 17.5 g is considered high
• Saturated fat: Below 1.5 g is considered low, above 5 g is considered high
• Salt: Below 0.3 g is considered low, above 1.5 g is considered high

Health Claims: “Rich In” and “Source Of”

EU Regulation 1924/2006 (Health Claims Regulation) precisely governs which nutrition and health claims are permitted on packaging. Every claim must be scientifically substantiated and approved by the EFSA.

Nutrition Claims

• “Source of [vitamin/mineral]”: The product contains at least 15% of the recommended daily intake per 100 g.
• “Rich in [vitamin/mineral]”: The product contains at least 30% of the recommended daily intake per 100 g. That is twice as much as “source of.”
• “High protein”: At least 20% of the energy value comes from protein.
• “Low sugar”: Maximum 5 g of sugar per 100 g.
• “Sugar-free”: Maximum 0.5 g of sugar per 100 g.

Health Claims

Statements such as “Calcium contributes to the maintenance of normal bones” are so-called Article 13 claims. They come from a positive list reviewed by the EFSA. Manufacturers may only use these exact formulations. Custom health promises such as “strengthens bones” or “protects against osteoporosis” are prohibited.

This means that if a product carries a health claim on its packaging, it is at least an indication that a certain minimum quantity of the advertised nutrient is present. If such claims are absent, the product may contain only traces.

The 5-Ingredient Rule as a Guide

Michael Pollan popularised the 5-ingredient rule: avoid buying foods that contain more than 5 ingredients. This rule of thumb is deliberately simple and has its limitations. A homemade curry can easily contain 15 ingredients and still be healthy. But as a quick guide in the supermarket, the rule works surprisingly well.

The underlying principle: the shorter the ingredient list, the lower the degree of processing. And the lower the processing, the closer the product is to its raw material. Monteiro et al. (2019) showed in their work on the NOVA classification that the degree of food processing correlates more strongly with health outcomes than individual nutrients.

If an ingredient list contains terms that you would not find in any kitchen, it is worth taking a closer look.

Conclusion

Reading ingredient lists is not rocket science, but it does require some practice. The key principles: always compare values per 100 g, not per serving. Sugar comes under many names. E-numbers are not automatically problematic. Health claims are regulated and have defined minimum quantities. And a short ingredient list is often a good first indicator of a less processed product.

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Sources:

• Chandon P, Wansink B (2007). The Biasing Health Halos of Fast-Food Restaurant Health Claims: Lower Calorie Estimates and Higher Side-Dish Consumption Intentions. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(3), 301-314.
• Kanter R et al. (2018). Front-of-Package Nutrition Labelling Policy: Global Progress and Future Directions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 54(2), S91-S100.
• Monteiro CA et al. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition, 22(5), 936-941.
• Suez J et al. (2022). Personalized microbiome-driven effects of non-nutritive sweeteners on human glucose tolerance. Cell.
• Chassaing B et al. (2015). Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome. Nature.
• EU Regulation 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods.
• EU Regulation 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers (FIR).